Data Table 12.1
Commercial Energy Production, 1973 93
Source: United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT), 1993 Energy Statistics Yearbook (UNSTAT, New York, 1995).
Energy data are compiled by UNSTAT, primarily from responses to questionnaires sent to national governments, supplemented by official national statistical publications and by data from intergovernmental organizations. When official numbers are not available, UNSTAT prepares estimates based on the professional and commercial literature.
Total production of commercially traded fuels includes solid,
liquid, and gaseous fuels and primary electricity production.
Solid fuels include bituminous coal, lignite, peat, and oil shale
burned directly. Liquid fuels include crude petroleum and natural
gas liquids. Gas includes natural gas and other petroleum gases.
Primary electricity is valued differently depending on its
source. Wind, tidal, wave, solar, and hydroelectric power
generation are expressed as the energy value of electricity (1
kilowatt hour = 3.6 million joules). Nuclear and geothermal power
generation are valued on a fossil-fuel-avoided basis rather than
on an energy-output basis. For example, a nuclear power plant
that produces 1,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity provides the
equivalent heat of 0.123 metric ton of coal. However, more than
0.123 metric ton of coal would be required to produce 1,000
kilowatt-hours of electricity. Much of the energy released from
coal combustion (or from a nuclear or geothermal plant) in a
power plant is used in the mechanical work of turning dynamos or
is lost in waste heat, so less energy is embodied in the final
electricity than in the initial coal. The efficiency of a thermal
electric plant is the ratio between the amount of final
electricity produced and the initial energy supplied. Although
this rating varies widely from country to country and from plant
to plant, UNSTAT and other international energy organizations use
a standard factor of 33 percent efficiency to estimate the fossil
fuel value of nuclear electricity and 10 percent efficiency to
estimate the fossil fuel value of geothermal energy. Electricity
production data generally refer to gross production. Data for the
Dominican Republic, Finland, France (including Monaco), Mexico,
the United States, Zambia, and Zimbabwe refer to net production.
Gross production is the amount of electricity produced by a
generating station before consumption by station auxiliaries and
transformer losses within the station are deducted. Net
production is the amount of electricity remaining after these
deductions. Typically, net production is 5 to 10 percent less
than gross production. Energy production from pumped storage is
not included in gross or net electricity generation.
Electricity production includes both public and self-producer power plants. Public power plants produce electricity for many users. They may be operated by private, cooperative, or governmental organizations. Self-producer power plants are operated by organizations or companies to produce electricity for internal applications, such as factory operations.
Fuelwood, charcoal, bagasse, animal and vegetal wastes, and all forms of solar energy are excluded from production figures, even when traded commercially.
One petajoule (1015 joules) is the same as 0.0009478 Quads (1015
British thermal units) and is the equivalent of 163,400 U.N.
standard barrels of oil or 34,140 U.N. standard metric tons of
coal. The heat content of various fuels has been converted to
coal-equivalent and then petajoule-equivalent values using
country- and year-specific conversion factors. For example, a
metric ton of bituminous coal produced in Argentina has an energy
value of 0.843 metric ton of standard coal equivalent (7 million
kilocalories). A metric ton of bituminous coal produced in Turkey
has a 1991 energy value of 0.925 metric ton of standard coal
equivalent. The original national production data for bituminous
coal were multiplied by these conversion factors and then by
29.3076 x 10 6 to yield petajoule equivalents. Other fuels were
converted to coal-equivalent and petajoule-equivalent terms in a
similar manner.
South Africa refers to the South Africa Customs Union: Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland.
For additional information, refer to the United Nations 1993 Energy Statistics Yearbook.
Data Table 12.2
Energy Consumption, 1973 93
Sources: United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT), 1993 Energy Statistics Yearbook (UNSTAT, New York, 1995). Gross National Product (GNP): The World Bank, World Tables, on diskette (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995).
Commercial energy consumption refers to apparent consumption
and is defined as domestic production plus net imports, minus net
stock increases, and minus aircraft and marine bunkers. Total
consumption includes energy from solid, liquid, and gaseous
fuels, plus primary electricity (see the definition in the
Sources and Notes to Table 12.1). Energy consumption per constant
1987 US$ of GNP is calculated using GNP data from the World Bank
and is a measure of relative energy efficiency. Included under
imports as a percentage of consumption are imports minus exports.
A negative value (in parentheses) indicates that exports are
greater than imports.
Traditional fuels includes estimates of the consumption of
fuelwood, charcoal, bagasse, and animal and vegetal wastes.
Fuelwood and charcoal consumption data are estimated from
population data and country-specific per capita consumption
figures. These per capita estimates were prepared by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) after an
assessment of the available consumption data. Data were supplied
by the answers to questionnaires or come from official
publications by Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brazil, the Central African
Republic, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cyprus, El Salvador,
The Gambia, Japan, Kenya, the Democratic People s Republic of
Korea, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Malawi, Mauritius,
Nepal, Panama, Portugal, the former Soviet Union, Sri Lanka,
Sweden, Thailand, and Uruguay. Estimates by the FAO of per capita
consumption of nonconiferous fuelwood have ranged from 0.0016
cubic meter per capita per year in Jordan to 0.9783 cubic meter
per capita per year in Benin.
Similar estimates were prepared for coniferous fuelwood and for charcoal. Although the energy values of fuelwood and charcoal vary widely, UNSTAT uses standard factors of 0.33 metric ton of coal equivalent per cubic meter of fuelwood and 0.986 metric ton of coal equivalent per metric ton of charcoal.
Bagasse production is based on sugar production data in the Sugar Yearbook of the International Sugar Organization. It is assumed that 3.26 metric tons of fuel bagasse at 50 percent moisture are produced per metric ton of extracted cane sugar. The energy of a metric ton of bagasse is valued at 0.264 metric ton of coal equivalent.
A petajoule is one quadrillion (1015 ) joules. A gigajoule is one billion (109 ) joules. A megajoule is one million (106 ) joules.
Data Table 12.3
Reserves and Resources of Commercial Energy, 1993
Sources: World Energy Council (WEC), 1995 Survey of Energy
Resources (WEC, London, 1995). Hydroelectric technical potential:
The World Bank, A Survey of the Future Role of Hydroelectric
Power in 100 Developing Countries (The World Bank, Washington,
D.C., 1984). Hydroelectric installed capacity: United Nations
Statistical Division (UNSTAT), 1993 Energy Statistics Yearbook
(UNSTAT, New York, 1995).
Energy resource estimates are based on geological, economic, and technical criteria. Resources are first graded according to the degree of confidence in the extent and location of the resource, based on available geological information, and are then judged on the technical and economic feasibility of their exploitation.
Proved reserves in place represent the total resource that is known to exist in specific locations and in specific quantities and qualities. Proved recoverable reserves are the fraction of proved reserves in place that can be extracted under present and expected local economic conditions with existing available technology. Additional energy resources, comprising those that are not currently economic, are not shown in this table.
The coal, oil, and gas sectors of the energy industry each have
their own categories for estimating reserves. The WEC attempts to
reconcile these categories to fit their cross-sectoral reserve
concepts. Each country estimates its resource reserves using its
own judgment and interpretation of commonly held concepts.
Intercountry comparisons should be made with this caveat in mind.
Reserve estimates are not final measured quantities. Those
estimates change as exploration, exploitation, and technology
advances and as economic conditions change.
There is no internationally accepted standard for categorizing coals of different ranks, although the WEC has used all the information available to do so. Anthracite makes up only a small fraction (3 to 4 percent) of anthracite/bituminous coals. Lignite makes up 57 percent (globally) of the proved reserves in place of subbituminous/lignite coals, and 63 percent of global proved recoverable reserves.
Crude oil also includes liquids obtained by condensation or extraction from natural gas.
Uranium data refer to known uranium deposits of a size and quality that could be recovered within specified production cost ranges (under $80 per kilogram and under $130 per kilogram) using currently proven mining and processing technologies.
Hydroelectric known exploitable potential refers to that part of
a country s annual gross theoretical capacity (the amount of
energy that would be obtained if all flows were exploited with
100 percent efficiency) that could be exploited using current
technology and under current and expected local economic
conditions. This includes both large- and small-scale schemes.
Hydroelectric technical potential refers to the annual energy
potential of all sites where it is physically possible to
construct dams, with no consideration of economic return or
adverse effects of site development.
Installed capacity refers to the combined generating capacity of hydroelectric plants installed in the country as of December 31, 1990.
Data Table 12.4
Production, Consumption, and Reserves of Selected Metals, 1980 94
Sources: Production data for 1980, 1985, 1990, and 1994: U.S.
Bureau of Mines (U.S. BOM), Minerals Yearbook 1983, 1986, and
Various Years (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
1985, 1987, and 1995, respectively).
Consumption data for aluminum, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel,
tin, and zinc: World Bureau of Metal Statistics, World Metal
Statistics (World Bureau of Metal Statistics, Ware, U.K.,
December 1979, December 1980, December 1985, July 1990, August
1991, September 1991, October 1991, December 1992, and June
1995). Consumption data for mercury: Roskill Information Services
Ltd., Roskill s Metals Databook, 5th Edition, 1984 (Roskill,
London, 1984); Roskill Information Services Ltd., Statistical
Supplement to the Economics of Mercury, 4th Edition, 1978
(Roskill, London, 1980); Roskill Information Services Ltd., The
Economics of Mercury, 7th Edition, 1990 (Roskill, London, 1990);
and U.S. BOM, Mineral Industry Surveys, Mercury in 1989 (U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1989). Consumption
data for iron ore and crude steel: International Iron and Steel
Institute, Steel Statistical Yearbook 1985 and 1992
(International Iron and Steel Institute, Brussels, 1985 and
1992), and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD), UNCTAD Commodity Yearbook 1994 (New York, 1995).
Reserves and reserve base data: U.S. BOM, Mineral Commodity
Summaries 1993 (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., 1993).
The U.S. BOM publishes production, trade, consumption, and other data on commodities for the United States as well as for all other countries of the world (depending on the availability of reliable data). These data are based on information from government mineral and statistical agencies, the United Nations, and U.S. and foreign technical and trade literature.
The World Bureau of Metal Statistics publishes consumption data
on the metals presented, excluding mercury, iron, and steel. Data
on the metals included were supplied by metal companies,
government agencies, trade groups, and statistical bureaus.
Obviously incorrect data have been revised, but most data were
compiled and reported without adjustment or retrospective
revisions.
The countries listed represent the top 10 producers of each material in 1992 and the top 10 consumers in 1991.
The annual production data are the metal content of the ore mined for copper, lead, mercury, nickel, tin, and zinc. Aluminum (bauxite) and iron ore pr oduction are expressed in gross weight of ore mined (i.e., marketable product). Iron ore production refers to iron ore, iron ore concentrates, and iron ore agglomerates (sinter and pellets). Cadmium refers to the production of the refined metal. Production of crude steel, is defined as the total of usable ingots, continuously cast semifinished products, and liquid steel for castings. The United Nations definition of crude steel is the equivalent of the term raw steel as used by the United States.
Annual consumption of metal refers to the domestic use of refined
metals, which include metals refined from either primary (raw) or
secondary (recovered) materials. Metal used in a product that is
then exported is considered to be consumed by the producing
country rather than by the importing country. Data on mercury
consumption must be viewed with caution; they include estimates
on consumption of secondary materials, which are generally not
reported. Consumption of iron ore is the quantity of iron ore and
is calculated as apparent consumption the net of production plus
imports minus exports. Such a value for consumption makes no
allowance for stock inventories. This can lead to discrepancies
in the published consumption data evident in the latest report by
the UNCTAD Intergovernmental Group of Experts on Iron Ore. For
example, Brazil had a reported consumption (i.e., domestic and
imported ores consumed in iron and steel plants, as well as ores
consumed for nonmetallurgical uses) of 23.7 million metric tons
in 1990, compared to an apparent consumption of 40 million metric
tons. Apparent consumption of iron ore was chosen because data
for reported consumption were only available for a limited number
of countries and years. Because different countries report
different grades of iron ore, consumption data are not strictly
comparable among countries. Because world consumption of iron ore
is roughly equal to world production, world production data were
used for world consumption totals. Worldwide stock inventories
are assumed to be negligible. Consumption of crude steel is
calculated as apparent consumption. The International Iron and
Steel Institute converted imports and exports into crude steel
equivalents by using a factor of 1.3/(1 + 0.175c ), where c is
the domestic proportion of crude steel that is continuously cast.
Such an adjustment avoids distortion of the export or import
share relative to domestic production.
The world reserve base life index and the world reserves life index are expressed in years remaining. They were computed by dividing the 1992 world reserve base and world reserves by the respective world production rate for 1992. The underlying assumption is constant world production at the 1992 level and capacity.
The reserve base is the portion of the mineral resource that meets grade, quality, thickness, and depth criteria defined by current mining and production practices. The reserve base includes both measured and indicated reserves and refers to those resources that are both currently economic and marginally economic, as well as some of those that are currently subeconomic.
Mineral reserves are those deposits whose quantity and grade have been determined by samples and measurements and could be profitably recovered at the time of the assessment. Changes in geologic information, technology, costs of extraction and production, and prices of mined product can affect the reserve estimates. Reserves do not signify that extraction facilities are actually in place and operative.
Data Table 12.5
Industrial Waste in Selected Countries
Sources: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
(OECD), Environmental Data Compendium 1993 (OECD, Paris, 1993).
Waste definitions: Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal
(United Nations Environment Programme, 1989) Annex I; and Roger
Batstone, James E. Smith, Jr., and David Wilson (eds.), The Safe
Disposal of Hazardous Wastes, Vol. 1 (The World Bank Technical
Paper No. 93, Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. 19 23.
Industrial waste data are collected by various means, and definitions might vary across countries. The OECD generally collects data using questionnaires completed by government representatives. Comparisons should be made cautiously, because (a) definitions vary from country to country, (b) the mix of hazardous materials in each category also varies, (c) these data do not include all industrial or hazardous waste (some data are based only on surveys of particular segments of an industry), and (d) these data do not measure potential toxicity.
Waste generated from surface treatment of metals and plastics includes acids and alkalis (surface metal treatment is the largest source of acid wastes) as well as other toxics. Waste generated from biocide production results from the manufacturing and use of insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides (not including those quantities applied correctly, but including spills, residues, etc.). Waste oil includes used motor oil, contaminated fuel oils, waste from industrial processes, and waste vegetable oils, among others. Waste containing PCBs includes waste from their manufacture, from the scraping of equipment containing PCBs, and from certain hydraulic fluids used in mining equipment and aircraft. Clinical and pharmaceutical waste includes waste pharmaceuticals, laboratory chemical residues arising from their production and preparation, and clinical (i.e., infectious) waste from hospitals, medical centers, clinics, and research institutions. Waste from the production and use of photographic materials includes waste chemicals from photographic processing. Waste organic solvents arise from dry cleaning and metal cleaning, from chemical processes, as well as from the production of numerous manufactured products such as paints, toiletries, thinners, and degreasants. Waste from paints and pigments includes waste from the manufacture and use of inks, dyes, pigments, paints, lacquers, and varnishes. Waste from resins and latex comes from the production, formulation, and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues, and other adhesives.